The Main Function or Scope of Forensic Auditing Essay

2004). In forensic auditing special procedures are carried out in order to produce evidence. Moreover the auditing techniques are also used to identify and to gather evidence to prove any fraud. For example, how long the fraud has been carried out and how it was conducted and concealed by the perpetrators. Furthermore the forensic auditing is distinct from statutory auditing in various perspectives. The main objective of statutory audit is to express opinion on financial statements as to ‘true fair’ presentation whereas forensic auditing objective is to determine whether fraud has actually taken place in the financial statements. Basically forensic auditing refers to the whole process of investigating a financial matter. Furthermore,†¦show more content†¦(2010)]. Forensic auditing performs comprehensive analysis of investigations result across the enterprise to identify pervasive control issues. It also oversees the investigations, planning, and forensic report writing process forensic audits, and investigations and presentation of findings through reports and exhibits. It works closely with financial training function to enhance fraud auditing skills and conduct activities in areas of moderate to high risk and conduct investigations as well in complex and extremely sensitive parts. Importantly, forensic auditing promotes education and awareness on fraud risk management. [Mann, D., Nath, Y. (2010)]. DIFFERENCE BETWEEN FORENSIC AUDITING AND STATUTORY AUDITING S.no Particulars Statutory audit Forensic audit 1 Objective Express opinion as to true and fair presentation. Determine correctness of the accounts or whether any fraud has actually taken place. 2 Techniques Substantive and compliance procedures Analysis is of past trend and substantive or ‘in depth’ checking of selected transactions. 3 Period Normally all transactions for the particular accounting period. No such limitations. Accounts may be examined in detail from the beginning. 4 Verification of stock, estimation of realizable value of current asset, provisions/liability estimation etc. Relies on the management certificate/representation of management. IndependentShow MoreRelatedBenefits Of An Office Assistant1630 Words   |  7 Pagesnot change the essential position. Below are examples of the unfair and fair job changes: †¢ An administrative staff member who is inquired to undertake lunch coverage of the reception duties or learn current system could be taken to fall within the scope of an Office Assistant. †¢ Moving the same Office Assistant into a role which contains basic of food and beverage service could constitute a redundancy situation. Implementing changes to an employee’s job description may have risks, occurring most oftenRead MoreBenefits Of An Office Assistant1150 Words   |  5 Pageswhat they can be considered a reasonable change in the scope of their position and what they constitute a termination or redundancy if challenged. Reasonable changes are those that generally do not alter the essential position. Below are some examples of the unfair and fair job changes:- †¢ An administrative staff member who is inquired to undertake lunch coverage of the reception duties or learn current system could be taken to fall within the scope of an Office Assistant. †¢ Moving the same Office AssistantRead MoreChanges And Responsibilities Of An Office Assistant1148 Words   |  5 Pageswhat they can be considered a reasonable change in the scope of their position and what they constitute a termination or redundancy if challenged. Reasonable changes are those that generally do not alter the essential position. Below are some examples of the unfair and fair job changes:- †¢ An administrative staff member who is inquired to undertake lunch coverage of the reception duties or learn current system could be taken to fall in the scope of an Office Assistant. †¢ Moving the same Office AssistantRead MoreChanges And Responsibilities Of An Office Assistant1188 Words   |  5 Pageswhat they can be considered a reasonable change in the scope of their position and what they constitute a termination or redundancy if challenged. Reasonable changes are those that generally do not alter the essential position. Below are some examples of the unfair and fair job changes: †¢ An administrative staff member who is inquired to undertake lunch coverage of the reception duties or learn current system could be taken to fall within the scope of an Office Assistant. †¢ Moving the same Office AssistantRead MoreSystem Audit12707 Words   |  51 PagesComputer assisted audit techniques. Traditional vs modern audit tools, Specialized audit software benefits and functions. Applications of CAATs. 4) Production of audit programmes. Evidence, Issuing reports, types of reports, followup activities, assessing the audit, preserving evidence. 5) Role of audit in systems development. 6) Computer forensics: definition, the forensic process, information ferensics and its applications. 7) COBIT: Control Objectives for Information and relatedRead MoreWhat Does Forensic Mean?3765 Words   |  16 Pages1. What does forensic mean? From Latin forensis ‘in open court, public,’ - Relating to, used in, or appropriate for courts of law or for public discussion or argumentation. - Of, relating to, or used in debate or argument; rhetorical. - Relating to the use of science or technology in the investigation and establishment of facts or evidence in a court of law: a forensic laboratory. http://www.thefreedictionary.com/forensic 2. Define forensic accounting. Forensic accounting is a typeRead MoreSOLUTIONS MANUAL to accompany MODERN AUDITING ASSURANCE SERVICES4904 Words   |  20 Pagesï » ¿SOLUTIONS MANUAL to accompany MODERN AUDITING ASSURANCE SERVICES 3rd edition Prepared by Philomena Leung, Paul Coram and Barry Cooper  © John Wiley Sons Australia, Ltd 2007 Chapter 1 Auditing, assurance and the public accounting profession Review questions 1.1 How does an expanded role of professional accountants affect the accounting profession? The expanded role of professional accountants has affected the accounting profession, inRead MoreAnalysis Of Fraudulent Activities And Examination Of Failure Of The External Auditor3205 Words   |  13 Pagesthe fraud and the accounting methods used to commit the fraud. Also, this paper will examine the audit failure of the external auditor, Ernst Young (EY), HealthSouth Corporation?s audit committee, and HealthSouth Corporation?s internal auditor function. Richard Scrushy was indicted in November 2003 on 85 counts connected with the overstatement of HealthSouth?s earnings by about $3 billion, but was subsequently acquitted of any fraud or wrongdoing in a trial lasting five-months. However, on JuneRead MoreThe Healthsouth Fraud And Internal And External Audit Failure3212 Words   |  13 Pagesauditor function. In 2005, Richard Scrushy was indicted in November 2003 on 85 counts connected with the overstatement of HealthSouth?s earnings by about $3 billion, but was subsequently acquitted of any fraud or wrongdoing in a trial lasting five-months. However, on June 29, 2006, Scrushy was charged for bribing a governor seven years prior (Whitmire 1). Additionally, in June 2009, Scrushy was ordered by an Alabama judge too pay $2.88 billion civil judgment (Bauerlein 1). Further, a forensic auditRead MoreAn Exploratory Study of Internal Control and Fraud Prevention Measures in Smes5855 Words   |  24 Pagesbroad term with a wide area of operation [7]. It includes a number of methods and measures, which are exercised by the management to ensure smooth and economic functioning of business entity. It assists the management in the performance of various functions. Furthermore, internal control is a whole system of controls for the business entity on financial and non-financial, established by the man agement in the conduct of a business including internal check, internal audit and other forms of control [7]

William Swift s A Modest Proposal - 1483 Words

Argument Analyzation of â€Å"A Modest Proposal† In the 1700s, Ireland was under the control of the British. They also owned Northern Ireland. The British were causing immense numbers of problems for the Irish people because their policies were leaving people homeless and starving. Jonathan Swift was a man who was born and raised in Ireland during these times. He engrossed himself in Irish politics especially during this time. Swift saw the struggles of the Irish people and became outraged by their conditions. He decided to fight against the British’s actions in a unique way, hoping that it would end this time of extreme poverty for the Irish. To do so, Swift wrote the satirical essay â€Å"A Modest Proposal†, using the voice of an upper class†¦show more content†¦The first way Swift does this is by using logos throughout his essay in a way that seems ridiculous, but is quite simple to catch his meaning. On the second page of his essay, Swift calculates the numbers of â€Å"children of poor parents annually born† (Swift 764). Though his voice and main purpose is of annoyance and heading toward the solution of eating the children he’s presenting the numbers of poor children in his country, which he concludes is 120,00. This is highly effective for the argument Swift is making because it causes the readers to be aware of the large numbers of poverty right outside in a more subtle than straightforward way. Another attempt at logos is when Swift argues that, â€Å"infants’ flesh will be in season throughout the year, but more plentiful in March†¦Ã¢â‚¬  (Swift 765). Swift explains that according to a French physician, after lent an even larger amount of children are born. This is supposedly an exceptional proposition in the speaker’s perspective because there would always be an abundant number of children to eat. Swift’s actual purpose, though, is to show the audience how insensitive it is to ig nore the needs of all these starving children. Pathos is used very effectively when Swift describes the homeless on the streets of Dublin in the first sentence; â€Å"It is a melancholy object to those who walk through this great town or travel in theShow MoreRelated Naked Lunch and A Modest Proposal Essay1420 Words   |  6 PagesNaked Lunch and A Modest Proposal In 1729, Jonathon Swift published an essay titled A Modest Proposal, which dealt with the issue of homelessness among the poor families of his country. His satirical proposal to control the population of homeless children stirred a debate on the morality of his proposal. Two hundred and thirty years later in 1959, William S. Burroughs published a novel entitled Naked Lunch, which dealt with the desperate struggle of drug addiction and the governments role inRead MoreA Modest Proposal By Jonathan Swift1340 Words   |  6 PagesA Modest Proposal was written in the year 1729 by the famous satirist Jonathan Swift. In his work he outlines the pros of eating unwanted children of Ireland for economical benefits in a time of great poverty. While the reader can obviously discard the idea of eating children, in his proposal, in a roundabout way, Swift speaks to hard pressing issues of the time. The state of Ireland is well described by Swift in this piece. He speaks of woman who â€Å"instead of being able to work for their honestRead MoreLiterary Analysis : Jonathan Swift1425 Words   |  6 PagesII Oct. 27, 2015 Literary analysis The author I decided to write about is Jonathan Swift for he had a keen sense for effective sarcasm. As Jonathan Swift said â€Å"The proper words in the proper places are the true definition of style.† Though he was known in different ways, he was mostly popularized through his gift in writing, particularly his satire, or his use of humor and irony, essays. Through out swift life, there has been plenty of events where I believe shape the way he was, hence his writingRead MoreAnalysis of Jonathan Swift ´s A Modest Proposal Essay532 Words   |  3 Pagesissue hasn’t been fazed a bit. From Jonathan Swift’s Modest Proposal, he clarifies the poverty issued throughout Ireland in the early 1700’s and how one suggestion could change it all. Elaborated from the Literary Reference Center, â€Å"A Modest Proposal, like Gulliver’s Travels, transcends the political, social, and economic crisis that gave birth to it, woeful as they were. Packed with irony a nd satirical revelations of the human condition†¦Ã¢â‚¬  Swift wasn’t just writing a masterpiece, but an intended,Read MoreAnalysis Of Swift s A Modest Proposal 1546 Words   |  7 PagesRoepe EN323 Rzepka 3/9/15 Swift and Blake’s Use of Irony and Persona In Satire In the context of political questions and social activism, irony, exaggeration, humor, and ridicule are all valuable rhetorical tools to expose faults and make a point (New Oxford American Dictionary). Both Jonathan Swift and William Blake confront social systems of oppression in their literary careers, most notably with A Modest Proposal and Songs of Innocence respectively. Swift’s A Modest Proposal is an address to the wealthyRead More 18th Century Literature Essay648 Words   |  3 Pagesdiary, he shows the historical background and culture of the 18th century. The reader is able to understand the values and ethics of the time through the description detailed by Samuel Pepys and the reader is also exposed to the life a man in the 1660s. A Journal of the Plague Year is an example of historical fiction. Defoe uses wide ranges of vivid descriptions including verisimilitudes and imagery, to give the reader a realistic feel of what took place through the eyes of a witness. This literaryRead MoreThe Irish Potato Famine and the Population and Social Trends through 1700-18501295 Words   |  6 Pagesto decrease 20-25% and it did not stabilize again until the 1930’s. Although there was a potato crop failure in Europe in the 1840’s, one third of the Irish population was dependent on this crop. This was inevitable due to the sole dependency of the Irish people on home-grown potatoes and the population almost doubling from 1800 - 1840. The journal, â€Å"Spaces for Famine: A Comparative Analysis in Ireland and the Highlands in the 1840’s† by Liz Young states that â€Å"if the crop was poor or failed, familiesRead MoreThe War of the Ants1689 Words   |  7 Pagesapproximations based on Amazon.com listings) Henderson, Bobby, The Gospel of the Flying Spaghetti Monster (New York: Villard, 2006). ISBN: 0812976568. $11.16. Strunk, William, and E. B. White, The Elements of Style, 4th ed. (Needham Heights: Pearson). ISBN: 020530902X. $9.95. Swift, Jonathan, A Modest Proposal and Other Satirical Works (Mineola: Dover, 1996). ISBN: 0486287599. $2.00. Course Packet (provided on first day of class--but which will expand throughout the course)Read MoreHistorical Archaeology Of The 19th Century1917 Words   |  8 Pageslong, expensive wars between King James and who would later be referred to as king William in Ireland. After the defeat of King James laws were passed that made it so that Catholics could not hold positions of power, own land or event vote. And Presbyterians could own land but could not vote. The land that could not longer be owned by the Catholics The defeat of James forces by his Protestant son-in-law, William of Orange, Ireland had become a Protestant-dominated country by the end of the seventeenthRead MoreGulliver ´s Travels by Jonathan Swift: Biographical Summary1982 Words   |  8 PagesGulliver’s Travels – Jonathan Swift – Biographical Summary Jonathan Swift was born on November 30, 1667 in Ireland to English parents, Jonathan and Abigail. His father, Jonathan, died shortly after his birth, leaving his mother to raise him and his sister alone. In Ireland, Swift was dependent on a nanny for three years because his mother moved to England. The young man was educated because of the patronage of his Uncle, Godwin Swift. Godwin sent him to Kilkenny Grammar School at age six, which

Story of an Hour Free Essays

1) Chopin heavily utilizes symbolism in her story. Describe three symbols in detail, making sure you discuss their relevance to the story’s themes. 2) Mrs. We will write a custom essay sample on Story of an Hour or any similar topic only for you Order Now Mallard is described as suffering from a heart condition. How does this malady affect her character and the events in the story? 3) Analyze the plot structure of the story. Is there any foreshadowing? What would you say is the climax of the story? 4) Does this story provide a feminist theme? Why or why not? There are three main details in â€Å"The story of an hour† Mrs. Mallard is an independence woman, role of woman in marriage life and self-assertion. Mrs. Mallard has a heart problem so is very difficult for people around her announce for her about the death of her husband. However, not like any reaction from any women we could imagine, she just weeps at once and comes back to her room by herself. â€Å"When the storm of grief had spent itself she went away to her room alone†. Even with the serious heart problem but she is very strong underneath. She overcomes the pain of the loss of her husband and accepts truth that she has to keep moving forward by herself. â€Å"And she opened and spread her arms out to them [long years in future] in welcome†. Moreover, the woman’s role in marriage life is one of the theme of the story. In the old time, there is no freedom for married people, especially woman. Even though Mrs. Mallard had been loved by her husband a lot, but when she knows that he passed away, she is waiting for her freedom to come. â€Å"†Free! Body and soul free! † she kept whispering†. And self- assertion is the most important ideal that the author want to mention. People always love themselves the most. Even the love for other is still exist, but in the deepest part of their mind they would always put themselves in the most important role. Feature Article – Short Story  The Plane of the Sleeping Beauty As Mrs. Mallard, even she has a heartbroken for the death of her husband but since then her self-assertion is show up clearly. â€Å"But she saw beyond that bitter moment a long procession of years to come that would that belong to her absolutely†. She is waiting for the time to spend her life by her own without any bending for anyone, include her be-loved husband. Mrs. Mallard has a heart problem so everyone around her always worried for her sickness getting bad. When they want to tell her the bad news about her husband, they have to find the way â€Å"as gentle as possible† to start. Because of that problem, she seems very quiet in the family. After weeping for her husband’s bad news, she goes back to her room and would not let anyone follow her. Sitting in her room and let many thoughts come through her mind without making any noise except some whispering â€Å"free, free, free! †. It does not have too many conversion between her and people around, most of the time is the thoughts in her mind. Her room remains silence until her sister asking her to open the door for her. When Mrs. Mallard heard about her husband’s death, she is looking forward to spend the rest of her life in freedom. Her life had been tighten up with her husband in such a long time, and since now it is the time for her to live for herself without the control of anyone. For me, the climax of the story is when Mr. Mallard come back in front of everyone in the house. Besides his wife, his friend and his sister in law are also very shocked to see him back because they strongly believe that he was killed in the accident. And Mrs. Mallard after the heartbroken moment for his death, the exciting moment to spend her own life in the future, and now seeing him come back surprisingly. With every shocking news come in a short time, her heart could not take it. I think there is the feminist theme in this story based on the way Mrs. Mallard reaction in front of her husband bad news. In the old time, woman are not appreciated as man. Even between Mr. and Mrs. Mallard has love, but she still lives under the control of her husband. Therefore, after the short moment weeping for his death, she is immediately plan for her future life. She excited to spend her life by her own. How to cite Story of an Hour, Essay examples Story of an Hour Free Essays Theme is the second aspect this paper will go over, which is the overall moral or idea meant to be taken away from the story. The final aspect will be the plot, which is the key points and what the entire story is based upon. Authors use literary tools to express certain feelings and or emotions; this paper will go over the mentioned earner and explain why each stood out. We will write a custom essay sample on Story of an Hour or any similar topic only for you Order Now To begin, Kate Chopin uses different types of characters very vaguely in â€Å"The Story of an Hour†. The main character or protagonist is Mrs.. Mallard, while the rest of the characters can be considered antagonists. Though Richards and Josephine may not be considered to have been drawn into conflict with Mrs.. Mallard, they are not the mall characters and thus cannot be classified as the protagonist. The three characters In the story are not considered â€Å"stock† characters, as none of them can be considered a stereotype. All three however are flat characters, no background Is given for any of the them and all that is known is Mrs.. Mallard is the wife, Richards is the husbands friend and Josephine is the sister of the main character. Mr.. Mallard, who is introduced in the final sentences of the story is very flat and is only used in he story for the development and climax. Each of the characters in the story are meant to be flat, as the story Is very short In length and any more time spent describing one or more of the story would reduce the effect of using flat characters In the first place. The use of flat characters is also important to the theme and plot of the story. Richards is only known as the husbands’ friend, if more was known about him, it would result in a different moral to be taken away, and in the case of this work, the moral is meant to be vague and unclear. The same can be said about the elation to the plot, if more time was taken to give background information on each of the characters then the plot would be diluted to the extent of seeming uneventful. Additionally, the theme and or moral of ‘The Story of an Hour† as In most stories are open to interpretation. The work is far from being an allegorical tale, as no specific or obvious moral is to be taken away from the readings and there are no parallel sequences or symbolic ideas given. The story is more of a microcosm as the entire work is a small world of its own which forces the small problems to be dealt thin the story. Themes that come to mind are that women are strong and able to overcome great costless aspect Pensacola Limitations, or Tanat men are villous In their intentions. Both are supported by the introductory sentence of the story, â€Å"Knowing that Mrs.. Mallard was afflicted with a heart trouble† (Chopin 80). As stated before, the theme relies on the characters descriptions, or lack thereof. If more character development was given then the story could be an allegorical tale, as more would be known of the characters and the reasons why they did everything they did ND why they reacted the way that they did. The theme also relies on the plot of the story to remain vague and only having the crucial events written about. If more detail was given to the events that occurred then again, the theme would be affected and given less of a hazy aspect to the reader. Finally, the plot is a unified plot as the entire story is told within a single day or in the case of â€Å"The Story of an Hour†, within an hour. An episodic plot stretches over days or weeks and is connected by transitional devices (Guy;an 14) and seeing this Tory does not have that characteristic, does not fall under that category. The dramatic structure of the story rises and falls only once and is combined with the climax of the story. The raising occurs within the sentence â€Å"Her fancy was running riot along those days ahead of her† (Chopin 81) and falls when the story is finalized with â€Å"she had died of heart disease-of Joy that kills† (Chopin 82). The story does not have moments of crisis, as the entire tale is a â€Å"Moment of crisis† from beginning to end. The plot relates to the characterizations and theme as there are no real leasebacks or foreshadowing. The use of flashbacks would affect the character development as we would have further knowledge of each character, thus resulting in â€Å"round† characters. The use of foreshadowing would result in a glimpse of the future and the motivations of each character which in turn would affect the moral or theme of the story. Throughout the entire work Chopin uses each literary device to perfection. If she had changed any parts of her characterization it would be confusing as to why such care was taken into character development and such vagueness was portrayed in the theme and plot. How to cite Story of an Hour, Papers

Personality of 12 Angry Men free essay sample

This movie goes to show how such crucial facts and minuet evidence if not processed fully and clearly can change the outcome in such a big way. In this jury they have 12 men from all different walks of life, 12 different times, and 12 different personalities. Who have an obligation to come to one conclusion and thats whether or not the young man on trial is guilty of murdering his father or is innocent beyond a  reasonable doubt. Under much frustration and lack of patience these 12 men began to get unruly and unfocused. Throughout this distraction key terms get misused, facts get turned around and more importantly emotions start to cross making it hard for these men to produce a verdict. Set in the rather claustrophobic confines of a jury room, the movie gives 12 actors a chance to showcase 12 distinct characters with interesting personality differences. First, it might be helpful to explain briefly how these types are divided. We will write a custom essay sample on Personality of 12 Angry Men or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page Each personality type is represented by four letters made up from these possibilities: E  for Extroversion or  I  for Introversion sometimes the easiest to spot, outgoing vs. reserved people) S  for Sensation or  N  for iNtuition (an S focuses on actual, concrete things, an N looks at possibilities and ideas) T  for Thinking or  F  for Feeling (deciding with head or heart, objective vs. subjective) J  for Judging or  P  for Perceiving (Js are more organized, scheduled and faster with decisions and tend to see things as more black or white, Ps like to keep options open and are more flexible) These classifications together describe 16 personality types, identifying every person by one trait from each of the four pairs. And alsocan be described in the Big Five Personality Model which the five basic dimensions underlie all others and encompass most of the significant variation in human personality. These 12 characters of juror have their own personality, values, atitudes, emotions and moods. These kind of personality, values, attitudes, emotions and moods can be affected the decision making towards 19-year-old defendant which been arrested on changes of killing his own father. These 12 characters also face a barrier that may affected their decision making process.

Multinational Company Essay Example

Multinational Company Essay According to knowledge and network-based theories of multinational companies (MNCs), the main source of MNC competitive advantage is the creation and transfer of knowledge within the MNC system. The processes of knowledge creation and knowledge transfer are extensively investigated in the present literature.However, there are issues that are still underdeveloped, such as control and organizational mechanisms as a micro foundation of modern MNC theories. This paper is aimed at presenting an overview of the modern theoretical approaches of MNC competitive advantages from the managerial point of view. The applicability of these concepts is further considered in the case of MNC affiliates doing their business in transition economies in order to provide guidelines for future empirical research.Key words: multinational companies, knowledge-based theory, network-based theory, transition economies. INTRODUCTION M 1 2 NCs are recognized as the main actors of e international business, internat ional business financing and global economies. According to Ghoshal and Bartlett, MNC is a firm that has substantial direct investment in foreign countries that it actively manages. 2 The value of their sales in host countries overpasses the value of trade (imports and exports) in today’s world economy.Multinational companies attracted scientific and public attention Dr Biljana Pesalj, Assistant, Faculty of Economics, University of Belgrade, E-mail address: biljana. [emailprotected] com Ghoshal Sumantra and Bartlett A. Christopher, â€Å"The Multinational Corporation as an Interorganizational Networkâ€Å", Academy of Management Review, 15, 4, 1990, 603–625, p. 603. 237 Pesalj B. , Konkurentske prednosti multinacionalnih kompanija, MP 2, 2011 (str. 237–259) rom the moment of their appearance, and especially from the beginning of their intensive growth (during the 1960s). There are many interesting and important issues concerning MNC that have been elaborated i n the literature such as motives of internationalization, forms and strategies of internationalization, effects on host and home countries, political aspects of MNC activities, emerging forms of international business financings, corporate social responsibility of MNC, relationship between the headquarters and MNC affiliates, etc.However, many questions have remain unanswered, such as particular mechanisms used to coordinate MNC’s activities, particularities of MNC affiliates doing their business in transition economies, etc. Modern theories of MNC, such as knowledge-based and network-based theories, indicate that in comparison to national3 companies4 the ability to create and transfer knowledge internally is one of the main competitive advantages of MNCs. Drawing upon knowledge-based and network–based theoretical views MNC is considered â€Å"repository of knowledge and a superior way of organizing knowledge transfer across MNC units†. In the largest number of studies, (theoretical and empirical) MNC is considered a differentiated network where knowledge is created in various parts of MNC and then internally transferred to different interrelated units. 6 The creation of innovation in MNC is no longer focused on the home country, but could be dispersed throughout the MNC system. There are authors which point out that innovative activities of foreign subsidiaries are a crucial part of innovative performance of MNC as a whole. 7 Subsidiary’s local business networks (i. . 3 4 We use the term â€Å"national companies† to denote those that organize their production activities in a sole country in contrast to multinational companies. See: Minbaeva D, Pedersen T, Bjorkman I, Fey CF, Park HJ, â€Å"MNC knowledge transfer, subsidiary absorptive capacity, and HRM†, Journal of Internation Business Studies, 34, 2003, pp. 586–599; Andersson Ulf, Forsgren Mats and Holm Ulf, â€Å"Subsidiary Embeddedness and Competence Develo pment in MNCs – A Multi – level Analysisâ€Å" Organization Studies, 22, 6, 2001, pp. 013–1034; Kogut Bruce and Zander Udo, â€Å"Knowledge of the firm and the evolutionary theory of the multinational corporation†, Journal of International Business Studies, Fourth Quarter, 1993, pp. 625–645. Kogut Bruce and Zander Udo, ibid. , p. 625. See: Andersson Ulf, Forsgren Mats and Holm Ulf, â€Å"Balancing subsidiary influence in the federative MNC: a business network view†, Journal of International Business Studies, 38, 2007, pp. 802–818; Hedlung G. , â€Å"The Hypermodern MNC – A Heterarchy? â€Å", Human Resource Management, 25, 1986, pp. –35 Yamin Mo and Otto Juliet, â€Å"Patterns of knowledge flows and MNC innovative performance†, Journal of International Management, 10, 2004, pp. 239–258. 5 6 7 238 Pesalj B. , Konkurentske prednosti multinacionalnih kompanija, MP 2, 2011 (str. 237–259) involving sup pliers, customers and competitors) are often a critical source of innovation and capability development for the subsidiary. 8 In the paper, we first present the literature review on the theory of international business and theory of MNC with the focus on the modern approaches such acknowledge-based theory, network-based theory and social capital theory.Then we consider the applicability of these modern views of MNC as a possible theoretical background for the empirical research on MNC in transition economies. Namely, transition economies suffer from many distortions in comparison to developed ones and are specific in many aspects; therefore, they may require modified theoretical approaches to the conceptualization of MNC. We discuss the results of the most recent empirical studies conducted in some of the transition economies. The bjective of this analysis is to facilitate and improve the process of establishing hypotheses and conducting future empirical research on different aspect s of MNC in transition economies. The empirical results are expected to reflect at some point the modification or alternation of the MNC theoretical conceptualization, doing business in transition economies. DUNNING’S ECLECTIC PARADIGM Until the late 1980s, the dominant accepted theory of FDI was Dunning’s eclectic paradigm (OLI theory).Within the scope of this theory, Dunning proposed three main determinants of international activity of the firm and they are as follows: ownership, location and internalization (OLI triad). According to this traditional approach to the internationalization processes and MNC, firms are motivated to internationalize their business in order to exploit their ownership or firm specific advantages. 9 Traditional approaches consider that there is just one-way direction of knowledge transfer and learning – from headquarters to foreign subsidiaries.Market imperfections and high transaction costs are seen as the main reasons why MNCs prefe r transfer of knowledge-based assets using FDI (within the MNC system) to using market mechanisms. 8 Tsai Hsin-Ju and Yamin Mo, â€Å"Organizational influences on innovation transfer in multinational corporations†, Workshop on knowledge flows, School of Business and Management, Queen Mary, University of London, 2007, Internet: http://www. qmul. ac. uk /~bsw019/tsai 16/1/2008. Dunning H. John, Theories and Paradigms of International Business Activity, The Selected Essays of John H.Dunning, Volume I, Edward Elgar, 2002. 9 239 Pesalj B. , Konkurentske prednosti multinacionalnih kompanija, MP 2, 2011 (str. 237–259) However, as Dunning has noticed in his later work, OLI triad needed to be supplemented over time because, apart from the mentioned determinants of international activity of firms, MNCs are increasingly investing abroad in order to protect or augment their core competences. Therefore, the existing MNC theory was not powerful enough to offer a comprehensive interp retation of the actual international business activities.During the 1980s, as a response to criticism, Dunning introduced dynamic variables connected with the strategy of the firm. In his papers, at the beginning of 2000, Dunning concluded that there was the growing importance of relational assets (productive inter-firm and intra-firm relationships that determined the amount and structure of international business) that largely influenced OLI triad of variables of international business. TRANSITION FROM TRADITIONAL TO MODERN VIEWS OF MNC A change in the academic and research focus in dealing with MNC could be noticed at the end of the 1980s.In the period before the 1980s, the research in the field the MNC was mostly related to the analysis of the relationship between headquarters and affiliates and the analysis of the decisions to invest abroad as could be noticed in the Dunning’s work. But then, the focus moved to the activities of coordination in managing the network of for eign affiliates and to the analysis of competitive advantages resulting from the economy of scope of that kind of network. This change of focus called for a new theoretical, conceptual and methodological background.The research in the field of international business and MNC has been very fruitful during the past two decades and has thrown light upon many aspects of the nature, strategy and organization of the multinational enterprise. The change in the theoretical approach was evident in the conceptualization of the MNC organizational model. Regarding the model of MNC there are generally two main schools of thought. The first (traditional) line of thought used a model of the home-based MNC. 0 The implication of this view of organization and management of MNC is that MNC makes a clear distinction between core and peripheral activities for the improvement of competitive advantages on a global scale. Core activities are always kept in the home country, while only peripheral activities are allocated to affiliates. The second 10 Solvell Orjan and Zander Ivo, â€Å"Organization of the Dynamic Multinational Enterprise, the Home–Based and Heterarchial MNC†, International Studies of Management and Organization, 25,1-2, 1995, pp. 17–38. 240 Pesalj B. Konkurentske prednosti multinacionalnih kompanija, MP 2, 2011 (str. 237–259) (new, modern) line of thought includes several models of MNC, such as the geocentric firm,11 the diversified MNC,12 the inter-organizational network13 and the heterarchical MNC. 14 Without going into details and differences between these organizational models, we note that all these models have in common the suggestion that there are complex organizational structures and management processes in MNC aimed at upgrading competitive advantages by combining â€Å"global integration† and â€Å"local differentiation† of MNC.Since we consider this second stream more acceptable and more present in the modern literat ure, we focus on the concept of MNC as a differentiated interorganizational network (transnational solution given by Bartlett and Ghoshal15) as one of the approaches within this strand. The concept of MNC as a differentiated inter-organizational network means that MNC cannot be regarded as a uniform organization, but as a system of interrelated and interconnected organizational parts that are very different.The organizational parts of MNC differ greatly in their characteristics as well as in their contribution and role in the development of the competitive advantages of MNC as a whole. We do not consider the approach of Bartlett and Ghoshal as superior in comparison to, for example, the model of Hedlund or others, but we choose this approach because it has initiated a number of empirical studies that have considerably contributed to the understanding of sources of MNC’s competitive advantages.The most recent developments in theories of the firm view a firm as a â€Å"knowled ge-creating entity† and argue that knowledge and the capability to create and use are the most important sources of a firm’s sustainable competitive advantage. 16 As many authors point out, there has been a 11 12 13 14 15 16 Perlmutter V. Howard, â€Å"The Tortuous Evolution of the Multinational Corporation†, Columbia Journal of World Business, January – February, 1969, pp. 9–18. Prahalad C. K. , â€Å"Strategic Choices in Diversified MNCs†, Harvard Business Review, July – August, 1976.Bartlett Christopher and Ghoshal Sumantra, Managing across borders: The transnational solution. , Harvard Business School Press, Boston, MA, 1989. Hedlund G. , â€Å"The Hypermodern MNC – A Heterarchy? â€Å", Human Resource Management, 25, 1986, pp. 9–35. Bartlett Christopher and Ghoshal Sumantra, Managing across borders: The transnational solution. , loc. cit. Nonaka Ikujiro, Toyama Ryoko and Nagata Akiya, â€Å"A Firm as a Knowledge-c reating Entity: A New Perspective on the Theory of the Firm†, Industrial and Corporate Change, 9, 1, 2000, pp. 1–20. 241 Pesalj B. , Konkurentske prednosti multinacionalnih kompanija, MP 2, 2011 (str. 37–259) revolutionary transition from the conceptual model of MNC, as a market failure approach of internalization theory and transaction costs theory, to knowledge–based theories of the firm. The new perspective of MNC is based on the application of knowledge and network theories. The knowledge-based theory of MNC mainly deals with the characteristics of knowledge, transfer of knowledge and determinants of these processes. Within the knowledge-based theory, there is a large body of literature that deals with RD units that are seen as the main sources of the knowledge creation. 7 On the other side, the network theory and particularly the embeddedness concept give some more evidence on the other MNC source of knowledge – knowledge created and assimilate d in the close cooperation with local partnering organizations. These two approaches will be presented in the following text. THE NETWORK-BASED THEORY OF MNC MNC’s affiliates are the main sources of competitive advantages of MNC because they build deep and long-term relationships with local business partners as well as with other units of the MNC system. Due to these close relationships, new knowledge could be created.The main characteristic of this knowledge is that it is tacit – embedded in a specific context. Embeddedness could be defined as a set of close relationships with partner organizations in the business network and it relates to the intensity of information exchange and to the level of adjustments made between business partners. The term â€Å"embeddedness† has its origin in the classification of different types of knowledge systematized by Lam. 18 This author used tacit – explicit and individual – collective dimensions to identify the following four types of knowledge: embrained (individual-explicit), embodied (individualtacit), encoded collective-explicit) and embedded (collective-tacit). Embedded knowledge is tacit and context-specific (collective) ingrained in inter-dependent routines, technologies and procedures as well as in individuals who share common experiences and values. Such characteristics raise higher ambiguity and complexity barriers to transferability of this type of knowledge. 17 18 Further analysis in this field showed that RD units have very important roles in the MNC system. Lam Alice, â€Å"Tacit knowledge, organizational learning and societal institutions: an integrated framework†, Organizational Studies, 21, 2000, pp. 87-513. 242 Pesalj B. , Konkurentske prednosti multinacionalnih kompanija, MP 2, 2011 (str. 237–259) The concept of affiliate embeddedness in the business network of relationships with stakeholders is opposed to that of traditional business contact, which a firm makes with its suppliers and consumers and that ends with the exchange. Some relationships in the business network of the affiliate are developed over time, so they evolve from traditional relations to a high level of cooperation and integration. 9 Therefore, the more the affiliate is dependent on its partners in carrying out its business activities and the more it is adjusted to them, the more it is embedded in the business network. If partner organizations are also dependent on the affiliate and adjusted to it, it is more possible that the affiliate embeddedness will be stimulated, because the interdependence leads to the creation of long-term cooperation. So, the higher the interdependence between an affiliate and its partners, the more embedded the affiliate will be in the business network. 0 Further research based on the application of the embeddedness concept clearly indicates that relationships in the network have an influence on affiliate performance. 21 Researchers in this field hypothesize and empirically prove that the closer the business cooperation of the affiliate with partner organizations the easier it is for the affiliate to assimilate new knowledge that comes from outside the MNC system. Consequently, the affiliate is able to innovate and improve its performance in the local market (market performance).The empirical research has also found that the ability of MNC affiliates to assimilate new knowledge from the local business environment could be a crucial source of competitive advantage for MNC as a whole and not just a source of market performance of an affiliate. 22 The empirical research 19 Andersson Ulf, Forsgren Mats, Pedersen Torben, â€Å"Subsidiary performance in multinational corporations: the importance of technology embeddednessâ€Å", International Business Review, 10, 2001, pp. 3–23. Andersson Ulf and Forsgren Mats, â€Å"Subsidiary Embeddedness and Control in the MNCâ€Å", International Business Review, 5, 5, 1996, p p. 87–508. Andersson Ulf and Forsgren Mats, â€Å"Subsidiary Embeddedness and Control in the MNCâ€Å", ibid; Andersson Ulf, Forsgren Mats, Pedersen Torben, â€Å"Subsidiary performance in multinational corporations: the importance of technology embeddednessâ€Å", loc. cit. See: Ghoshal Sumantra and Bartlett A. Christopher, â€Å"The Multinational Corporation as an Interorganizational Networkâ€Å", Academy of Management Review, 15, 4, 1990, pp. 603–625; Gupta Anil and Govindarajan Vijau, â€Å"Knowledge flows and the structure of control within multinational corporationsâ€Å", Academy of Management Review, 16, 4, 1991, pp. 68–792; Dunning John and Lundan Sarianna, â€Å"The Geographical Sources of Competitiveness of Multinational Enterprises: an econometric analysisâ€Å", International Business Review, 7, 1998, pp. 115–133. 20 21 22 243 Pesalj B. , Konkurentske prednosti multinacionalnih kompanija, MP 2, 2011 (str. 237–259) dealing sp ecifically with technological knowledge has confirmed the hypothesis that a higher level of external technological affiliate embeddedness is correlated with higher importance of that affiliate for the development of MNC as a system. 23 Authors Andersson et al. 4 focused on the role and performance effect of the subsidiary’s embeddedness. This study found that external subsidiary embeddedness had a positive impact on the development of products (market performances) and the processes in MNC (performances of MNC as a whole through transfer of knowledge). The results of the Andersson et al. ’s study also indicate that there might be a negative relationship between external embeddedness and influence (power) of the subsidiary inside MNC. These results indicate the paradoxical effect of embeddedness.Namely, embeddedness is a way to provide some new competences for the subsidiary and increase its performance and performance of other units, but on the other hand, it could lea d to a reduced interest in contributing to the MNC’s overall performance. These remarks point out that there are some conflicting forces inherent in the federative MNC: 1) gravitation of units, based on the mutual interest in business within the same organization and 2) centrifugal forces as a result of subsidiaries’ embeddedness in the unique local business contexts.This issue will be further discussed in the following segment within the context of knowledge transfer. THE KNOWLEDGE-BASED THEORY OF MNC Knowledge-based theory of MNC views these companies as â€Å"social communities that specialize in the creation and internal transfer of knowledge†. 25 This approach is used by Kogut and Zander26 to make an evolution of the theory of MNC suggesting that MNCs have superior efficiency in knowledge transfer across borders than through external market 23 24 Andersson Ulf, Forsgren Mats and Holm Ulf, â€Å"Subsidiary Embeddedness and Competence Development in MNCs â⠂¬â€œ A Multi – level Analysisâ€Å", loc. it. Andersson Ulf, Forsgren Mats and Holm Ulf, â€Å"Balancing subsidiary influence in the federative MNC: a business network view†, Journal of International Business Studies, 38, 2007, pp. 802-818. Kogut Bruce and Zander Udo, â€Å"Knowledge of the firm and the evolutionary theory of the multinational corporation†, Journal of International Business Studies, Fourth Quarter, 1993, 625-645, p. 625. Ibid. 25 26 244 Pesalj B. , Konkurentske prednosti multinacionalnih kompanija, MP 2, 2011 (str. 237–259) mechanisms.MNCs are specialized in transfer of tacit knowledge27 that could not be distributed successfully through the market. 28 These authors have empirically proven that the less codifiable and the harder to teach is the technology, the more likely transfer will be done inside the firm. The new perspective of the firm argues that organizations have distinctive advantages in comparison to some institutional mechan isms such as market. These distinctive advantages are based on organizations’ particular capabilities for creating and sharing of knowledge, having in mind tacit knowledge, in particular.The research of knowledge-based and network-based theories provided the re-assessment of the role of the subsidiary, suggesting that it could be strategic in the MNC system. It is now largely accepted that knowledge, created and accumulated in the network of MNC’s organizational units, is a strategically important source of MNC competitive advantage. 29 MNCs have the possibility to access this stock of knowledge, but also to combine it in order to find some new ways of their use. But, there are many challenges for the MNC management concerning successful transfer of knowledge across units.Namely, there are authors that indicate that transfer of knowledge inside the 27 Tacit knowledge is too complex and could not be transferred through the market, so MNCs appear to be efficient vehicles for the transfer of this type of knowledge across the borders. Competences are idiosyncratic, specific, tacit, non–codified knowledge that is very difficult to transfer from one affiliate to another. Speaking of the knowledge transfer it is important to notice the difference between explicit knowledge and tacit knowledge.Explicit knowledge is objective and can be expressed in forms such as: data, scientific formulas, specific actions and manuals. Tacit knowledge is difficult to codify and formalize because it is embedded in individuals and is experiential and subjective. Tacit knowledge such as belief, perspective, mental models, ideas and ideals are embedded in people, while organizational knowledge is embedded in organizational processes, procedures, routines and structures. Since explicit knowledge could be easily transmitted it could also be easily imitated by competitors and because of that it is not likely to be a source of competitive advantage.In contrast, tacit know ledge is difficult to access from outside, it is so hard to imitate and because of that it is very important in the creation of distinctive competences. It is clear that tacit knowledge is hard to transmit and it could be done only with the exchange of key people and all the systems that support them (Nonaka Ikujiro, Toyama Ryoko and Nagata Akiya, â€Å"A Firm as a Knowledge-creating Entity: A New Perspective on the Theory of the Firm†, Industrial and Corporate Change, 9, 1, 2000, 1-20). Kogut Bruce and Zander Udo, â€Å"Knowledge of the firm and the evolutionary theory of the multinational corporation†, loc. cit.Bjorkman Ingmar, Barner-Rasmussen Wilhelm and Li Li, â€Å"Managing knowledge transfer in MNCs: the impact of headquarters control mechanisms†, Journal of International Business Studies, 35, 2004, p. 443. 28 29 245 Pesalj B. , Konkurentske prednosti multinacionalnih kompanija, MP 2, 2011 (str. 237–259) organization is very difficult due to the ch aracteristics of knowledge itself, the specifics of the donor, the specifics of the receiver, and the nature of the relationship between them. 30 It has also been suggested that there are significant barriers to knowledge and innovation transfer because knowledge is embedded in social capital. 1 Affiliates develop long-term relationships with its external partnering organizations. In these relationships, organizations are deeply involved and develop their absorptive, problem-solving and innovative capacity. But, this capacity (knowledge) is developed inside a specific context that could be completely useless in a different context. In this way, the question of successful transfer is raised and further, competences of the management to coordinate and motivate knowledge-sharing are brought to front.Complex and close relationships that the affiliate has with its stakeholders could create competences and knowledge that could not be easily applied within a different business context. Kno wledge, developed by the affiliate, critically depends on the business context, and even on specific relationships. This feature is positively correlated with the ability of the affiliate to create new knowledge. For example, close and long-term cooperation with certain consumers or suppliers provides enlargement of the affiliate’s capacity to solve problems and to create new knowledge.But, the more the solutions are adequate for a specific context the more difficult they are to apply in the business context of other affiliates in the system. As a consequence, it is assumed that the technological embeddedness of the affiliate is positively correlated with the competence development, but also with the characteristics of the context. So, it could be concluded that there is a trade-off between embeddedness (which determines the market performance of the affiliate) and the possibilities of knowledge transfer to other organizational units of MNC (which determines the organizationa l performance of MNC affiliates).However, even though these theoretical considerations sound reasonable they have not been confirmed by the previous empirical research. The study of Andersson et al. 32 has shown that the affiliate embeddedness in the network of 30 These barriers are known as â€Å"corporate immune system† in Birkinshaw Julian and Ridderstrale Jonas, â€Å"Fighting the corporate immune system: a process study of subsidiary initiatives in multinational corporations†, International Business Review, 8, 1999, pp. 149–180.Zander Ivo and Solvell Orjan, â€Å"Cross–Border Innovation in the Multinational Corporation, A Research Agenda†, International Studies of Management Organization, 30, 2, 2000, pp. 44–67. Andersson Ulf, Forsgren Mats and Holm Ulf, â€Å"Subsidiary Embeddedness and Competence Development in MNCs – A Multi – level Analysisâ€Å" Organization Studies, 22, 6, 2001, pp. 1013–1034. 31 32 246 Pes alj B. , Konkurentske prednosti multinacionalnih kompanija, MP 2, 2011 (str. 237–259) business relationships is positively correlated with the competence development of MNC as a whole.This conclusion does not imply that all the relationships that an affiliate has with its partners are equally important and that affiliates should be equally embedded in all parts of the network. It means that only some relationships have these features, and they have to be recognized and developed. With regard to these challenges, there is a very important line of research that is focused on the ability of the subsidiary to act as a mediator between external and internal network of MNC.This research stream is especially focused on knowledge transfer within MNC, its determinants and effects on the performance. Studies investigate characteristics of knowledge transfers,33 characteristics of the sender and/or the receiver,34 the relationship between organizational design and knowledge transfers35 and the relationship between knowledge transfers and performances of the sender or receiver. 6 ORGANIZATIONAL MECHANISMS AND KNOWLEDGE TRANSFER IN MNCS Reviewing the knowledge-based approach to MNCs, authors Foss and Pedersen point out that even though it is a very popular and leading modern approach, in the theory of MNC there is still â€Å"a lack of adequate understanding of many of the causal mechanisms and contextual factors in relation between knowledge processes and organizational factors†. 7 Despite a great contribution of the knowledge-based theory to better understanding of MNC on the basis of investigation of importance, determinants and performances of knowledge transfer there are still some important aspects that are 33 34 35 36 Kogut Bruce and Zander Udo, â€Å"Knowledge of the firm and the evolutionary theory of the multinational corporation†, loc. cit. Gupta, Anil and Govindarajan, Vijay, â€Å"Knowledge Flows within Multinational Corporations†, Strategic Management Journal, 21, 2000, pp. 73–496. O’Donnell W. Sharon, â€Å"Managing Foreign Subsidiaries: Agents of Headquarters, or an Independent Network? †, Strategic Management Journal, 21, 2000, pp. 525–548. Mahnke Volker, Pedersen Torben and Venzin Markus, â€Å"Why do MNC subsidiaries engage in knowledge sharing with other subsidiaries and what are the implications for performance†, DRUID 10th Anniversary Summer Conference, Copenhagen, Denmark, June 27–29, 2005, Internet: http://www. druid. dk/uploads/tx_picturedb/ds2005-1488. df 8/01/2008. Foss Nicolai and Pedersen Torben, â€Å"Organizing knowledge processes in the multinational corporation: an introduction†, Journal of International Business Studies, 35, 2004, pp. 340–349. 37 247 Pesalj B. , Konkurentske prednosti multinacionalnih kompanija, MP 2, 2011 (str. 237–259) underdeveloped. More research is needed on issues of organizational control mechanisms that would give micro foundations to the knowledge-based theory of MNC.More attention needs to be devoted to some issues such as â€Å"provision of incentives, the monitoring of managements and employees, etc. ,†38 and how they may influence the core processes investigated within the knowledge-based theory of MNC – transferring and deploying of knowledge. In the most recent studies using knowledge-based approach of MNC, we could notice that these remarks of Foss and Pedersen are still valid in the present. In order to deal with these issues especially useful is the literature that applies the concept of differentiated MNC.This approach largely provides an empirically based insight into the organizational aspects of knowledge transfers between MNC units. Also, the approach to the research of organizational mechanisms that is based on the social capital theory has provided some very useful insight. To foster knowledge flows within MNC, the parent company has at its disposal tailoring and control mechanisms in order to provide that knowledge is shared among units and consequently that performance is increased. 9 The other relevant argument is revealed in the study of Bjorkman et al. 40 Namely, the process of competences development engages human resources that are nowadays the most valuable resource. Once created, transfer of knowledge that is tacit and the context is specific requires the assistance of the same human resources that participated in the process of creation. So, the subsidiary might face some trade-off between the engagement of resources in the process of competence creation and in the process of knowledge transfer to other units. Therefore, eadquarters need to apply some mechanisms to motivate affiliates to engage its resources in the process of knowledge outflows for the benefits of other units and MNC as a whole, since the same resources could be used in the process of competence development for its own benefits, leading to a better po sition in the MNC system. 41 38 39 Ibid. , p. 341. Rabbiosi Larissa, â€Å"The evolution of reverse knowledge transfer within multinational corporations†, Paper ID: A108, â€Å"The Capitalization of Knowledge: cognitive, economic, social cultural aspects† Turin, Italy, 18–21 May, 2005, Internet: http://www. riplehelix5. com/pdf/A108_THC5. pdf 11/1/2008. Bjorkman Ingmar, Barner-Rasmussen Wilhelm and Li Li, â€Å"Managing knowledge transfer in MNCs: the impact of headquarters control mechanisms†, Journal of International Business Studies, 35, 2004, pp. 443–455. Ibid. 40 41 248 Pesalj B. , Konkurentske prednosti multinacionalnih kompanija, MP 2, 2011 (str. 237–259) Mahnke et al. 42 contributed with a new perspective of the contributing subsidiary – a unit that shares knowledge with other parts of MNC, analyzing its motives to do so and effects on its performance.These authors investigated reasons

Hawthorne essays

Hawthorne essays Hawthornes Picture of Puritanism The Puritans were a group of people who came over from England to the new world for religious freedom. They believed that the Anglican Church of was not strict enough. They first attempted religious freedom in Holland, but they were not happy there. They were not happy in Holland, so they saved their money and came to America. Puritans believed that the purpose of life was to get to heaven. Their time here was a passage way to heaven or hell. Although they believed that their lives were predestined, they tried to live their lives without sin in hopes that they would go to heaven, not hell. They thought that God had already chosen who would be going to heaven and who would be going to hell as far back as when he created the world. William Bradford encapsulates Puritan ideas in his writing. We see this in his story set on the Mayflower. There was a young man on the boat. He was putting down the poor on the ship because they were seasick on the way over. Bradford says, and did not let to tell them that he hoped to cast half of them overboard before they came to their journeys end, and to make merry with what they had (314). This young man was sinning as far as the Puritans thought. He was doing harm onto another person. And as far as the Puritans believed, something like this would send you to hell. Further in the passage, But it pleased God before they came half seas over, to smite this young man with a grievous disease, of which he died in a desperate manner, and so was himself the first that was thrown overboard... (Bradford 314). The young man on the ship has threatened the chosen people and in turn God protects them by striking the young man sick and having him being the first to be cast off the boat. We have read two stories by...

Corporate Social Responsibility of China Telecom Dissertation

Corporate Social Responsibility of China Telecom - Dissertation Example Center of discussion in this paper is Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) that has become a corporate custom. The CSR has been defined as the inclusion of social and environmental concerns into business actions on a voluntary basis. The main purpose of CSR practices is to mitigate the concerns of various internal and external stakeholders and shareholders. The stakeholders have been defined as those who have stakes or interests in companies’ actions and processes. The internal stakeholders include employees. Normally, employees always prefer that their stakes such as rise in salaries, bonuses and fringe benefits must not be violated and they should be appropriately satisfied. The external stakeholders include regulatory authorities, suppliers, financial institutions, local communities, customers, competitors and physical and geographical environment. The regulatory authorities want that the companies must always be transparent and they should comply with the relevant regulat ory requirements. In addition to that, the regulatory authorities expect that the companies should remain responsible corporate citizens. The suppliers expect that the companies must not delay or violate contract terms and they should always process timely payments so that they also become in a position to sustain business relationship with them. The financial institutions want that the companies to pay their outstanding debt and interest payments; the financial institutions always extend credit facility after financial evaluation of the financial statements of the companies.... plifment 50 Supporting Public Events 52 Spreading Healthy Information 52 Guaranteeing Emergency Communications 53 Caring for employees 55 Environment Protection Practices 58 Summary 64 Conclusion and Recommendations 66 References 70 Introduction Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) has become a corporate custom. The CSR has been defined as the inclusion of social and environmental concerns into business actions on a voluntary basis. The main purpose of CSR practices is to mitigate the concerns of various internal and external stakeholders and shareholders. The stakeholders have been defined as those who have stakes or interests in companies’ actions and processes. The internal stakeholders include employees. Normally, employees always prefer that their stakes such as rise in salaries, bonuses and fringe benefits must not be violated and they should be appropriately satisfied. The external stakeholders include regulatory authorities, suppliers, financial institutions, local co mmunities, customers, competitors and physical and geographical environment. The regulatory authorities want that the companies must always be transparent and they should comply with the relevant regulatory requirements. In addition to that, the regulatory authorities expect that the companies should remain responsible corporate citizens. The suppliers expect that the companies must not delay or violate contract terms and they should always process timely payments so that they also become in a position to sustain business relationship with them. The financial institutions want that the companies to pay their outstanding debt and interest payments; the financial institutions always extend credit facility after financial evaluation of the financial statements of the companies. The local